“Simplicity
to the point of starkness, the plain pine box, the laying out of the dead by
friends and family who also bore the coffin to the grave…these were the
hallmarks of the traditional funeral until the end of the nineteenth
century.” Jessica Mitford, The American Way of Death
This column covers
ways in which Americans, generally and local folks, specifically, have dealt
with the ceremonies of passage that accompany death.
Early area residents lived in constant fear of
illness or accident. Death was an ever present and intensely personal
experience for early residents. Many agreed with the English writer Horace
Smith that death was “the sleeping partner of life.” Individuals generally died
at home and families often controlled the entire process of caring for the
ailing to preparations for burial.
Death was
not something that happened just to the elderly as many families experienced
the loss of a child or adult in their productive years. Local cemeteries were
filled with the victims of both epidemics and endemic diseases that sometimes
wiped out whole families and even depopulated neighborhoods.
The average
life expectancy in 1850 was under 40 years of age, brought low by high infant
mortality. Poor sanitation practices spread many diseases. Those responsible
for the care of the decease were often overwhelmed by the number killed in war.
Many believed that illness was a punishment
for sin. Believers relied on prayers for God’s intercession as a cure. This was
especially true in the face of epidemics when days of fasting and prayer were
observed. Governors often proclaimed statewide fast days to combat contagious
disease.
Puritan
attitudes toward death forced many Protestants to look at I with some
ambivalence, since it was viewed through the lens of both punishment and reward
in the afterlife. Because one could never be sure about their personal status
regarding eternal damnation, there was a sense of helpless insecurity.
Other
religious groups provided a greater promise of salvation to their believers. The
religious revival of the Great Awakening after the 1730s offered an alternative
view of God as a deity of love and mercy, thus lessening to some degree the
fear of death. Among early residents there were also a number who viewed death
as the natural close of life with no existence beyond.
Until the
temperance movement of the 19th century it was expected there would
be “ardent spirits” provided at funerals. One observance was complete with “a
barrel of rum set out before the house, for all to help themselves, and it was
gone before night.”
Attitudes
toward death during much of the 19th century reflected a more romanticized and
sentimentalized view, thereby muting some of the fears. Many saw dying as an
escape to a better world, there to be reunited with loved ones who had gone
before.
In most
situations the body of the decrease was prepared in the home for burial and was
displayed in an open casket with friends and family sharing in the mourning. But
as attitudes and behaviors changed there was more prolonged periods of
seclusion during the bereavement, more elaborate funerals, mourning clothing,
poems, hair wreaths and even vials for the tears of sorrow.
William Cullen Bryant’s 1812 poem Thanatopsis captures this attitude as it
admonishes one to go to the grave “sustained and soothed by an unfaltering
trust.”
Other ethnic
groups approached death differently. The Irish wake, held in the home of the
deceased, was a time of recollections complete with refreshments and even humor.
The growing French-Canadian population had their own particular forms of
ceremonies surrounding death. For both of these Roman Catholic groups emphasis
was placed on both the religious ceremonies and on the support of the extended
families.
Among Jews
there were observances surrounding death and mourning that included special
rules for the caring of the body of the deceased, behavior during the period of
mourning and emphasis on the memories of the deceased that were similar and at
the same time quite different from other ethnic groups.
A contrast
to these religious and ethnic groups can be found in the spiritualists of the
mid-19th century who had a strong belief that the deceased remained close in
spirit allowing communication between the living and the dead. Reports of “spirit-rappers”
began to appear in Vermont newspapers in the 1850’s.
Soon after
settlement each town established one or more cemeteries. These were often
neighborhood burial places, sometimes adjacent to the local church. Some
individuals preferred to be buried on the home place in a small family burial
ground.
Early on, coffins
were made by family members or local carpenters. Wells’ Newbury history
mentions that it was “not unusual for people of some wealth to have their
coffins made while they were yet living, and upon such, considerable expense
was sometimes lavished.” He added: “Not in Newbury was this practice known.”
Caskets
differed from coffins in shape and ostentation and were more likely to be used
in the later 19th century. The custom of enclosing the coffin or casket in an
outer box for burial came into general use about 1860.
Several
local towns purchased burying cloths, decorated heavy black material large
enough to cover the coffin while it was being transported to the graveyard.
Towns also secured a horse-drawn town hearse to replace the use of a private
wagons.
Corinth
purchased one in 1869 and hired a sexton to maintain it, supply the team and
attend all funerals for $10.75 per year. Groton paid $275 for a hearse in 1871.
The service of their sexton was put out to bid.
Towns also
maintained a hearse house for the storage of this ornate vehicle. A news item from Thetford Center in 1894
mentioned that the Methodist Society had repaired the hearse-house. In 1898 the
Bradford Town Meeting voted to build a hearse-house in the Upper Plain
Cemetery.
Towns also
maintained a receiving vault for the storage of remains during the winter when
burial was difficult. These were often built into the side of a slope and faced
with granite and an iron door.
In 1912
Edward Sawyer left a bequest to build a memorial chapel and receiving vault in
Bradford’s Upper Plain Cemetery. It provided a space for funeral services for
families from away who were returning a deceased family member for “a final
resting place beneath our sod.”
Until the
Civil War most bodies were not embalmed. During that war Dr. Auguste Renouard
began embalming Union dead so that their bodies could be shipped home.
Following the war Renouard began a school to teach the practice to other
undertakers. It was about this time that the term “mortuary” began to replace
the term “dead-house” previously used in Vermont newspapers.
As local
furniture makers expanded their offerings to include furniture imported by
rail, they began to offer a wider variety of coffins and caskets. In 1867,
Bradford’s National Opinion carried
the following advertisement for George Butler: “Those wanting anything in the
line are respectfully invited to call and examine coffins and caskets of
various styles and prices, neatly trimmed to order on short notice. Also ready-made grave cloths, coffin
trimmings, plates etc.”
Funeral
managers who would undertake to arrange funeral and provide necessary
merchandise became known as undertakers. In 1888, the Grafton County Gazetteer listed one undertaker each for North
Haverhill, Haverhill Corner, Orford and Lyme. Warren had “three undertaker
shops.” The Orange County Gazetteer
of that year listed one each in Bradford, Wells River and Union
Village-Thetford. In East Topsham, town clerk J R. McLam also served a local
undertaker.
One
undertaker whose name is familiar was that of Arthur Hale of Bradford. Announcements in local newspapers in 1900
described him as a furniture dealer and undertaker. “He is a scientific
embalmer and his kind sympathetic manner makes him fit for the profession he
has chosen.” Hale was also listed as having “undertaking rooms” at Orfordville
in 1904.
Typical
charges in the late 19th century, in addition to the price of
merchandise, included “service at the house (placing corpse in the coffin)
$1.25.” Preserving remains on ice or embalming cost $10. Generally the
undertaker added a fee for being “in attendance” at the funeral. Fees for those who dug the grave were expected.
As early as 1805 it was the law in New Hampshire that the costs of the funeral
should come before all other debts.
Many
funerals were “at the house,” with the deceased “laid out” in the parlor. For this reason undertakers began to use the
terms funeral parlor and funeral home when they offered a commercial place for
funerals. Other funerals were held in church. Members of the clergy often gave lengthy
eulogies. Rev. Silas McKeen of Bradford was known for his presentations and
they were later offered in printed booklets.
Many
funerals included hymns such as “Shall We Gather at the River,” elaborate
floral displays, tolling bells and numerous mourners. Members of fraternal
organizations such as the Masons performed special rituals for deceased
members. By the early twentieth century it was common for newspapers to include
the names of mourners who attended from away.
Mourners were expected to show their respect
by following the deceased to the cemetery for burial. Newspapers reported “the
long and silent process of neighbors following the deceased to his long home.”
This
practice may have been in decline when in 1877 Vermont historian Abby Hemenway
wrote “Funeral rites were attended with more solemnity and ceremony than at
present. The deceased, borne on men’s
shoulders, whatever the distance, and attended by pall-bearers, was carried
silently and reverently to the last resting place. At the grave, which was always closed before
the assembly withdrew, it was expected that the father or husband or next
friend would tender the thanks of the mourners.”
Observers
often used a language of death to avoid saying someone “died.” “Dead as a
doornail,” “kicked the bucket,” “asleep in Christ,” “found everlasting peace,” “passed
on,” “the kiss of death,” “gave up the ghost,” “six feet under,” or “no longer
with us” are just a few alternatives.
There are
also many examples of superstitions and folklore about death and cemeteries.
Corpses were meant to be carried from the house “feet first” lest it bring bad
luck to those who remain. These are a litany of actions to ward off bad luck
when passing a cemetery. Few are willing to take a walk in a cemetery,
especially at night or around Halloween.
Relatively
recent trends have signified a change in the attitudes toward death and dying
in modern America. Changes in religious affiliation, the hospice movement,
advanced directives and death- with-dignity legislation as well as changes in
memorial services and treatment of the body of the deceased are examples.
If the
reader is interested, I have written three other articles that complement this
article. They can be accessed at this blog by searching the following titles: “ Influenza and Other Epidemics,” “What
Ails You?” and “Carved in Stone,” each with the prefix of “In Time Past.”